藏传佛教阿閦佛图像及其相关问题研究（7—15世纪）

　　考古学及博物馆学专业

　　博士生：杨清凡　　指导教师：王尧　教授　霍巍　教授

　　阿閦佛（梵文Akshobhya ，藏文Sangs-rgyas mi-vkhrugs-pa ，日文Ashuku），又名不动如来，是至少在公元2-3世纪之间就已经出现的早期大乘佛教诸佛之一，其在大乘佛教中的地位主要凸显于其佛国净土思想中，即东方妙喜国土（Abhirati，又译阿毗罗提净土）。7世纪以后，随着密教的发展，组织了五方佛部族与相应的宇宙观，阿閦佛演化成为密教五方佛中的东方佛，并被赋予了特定的形象特征（身色蓝，触地印，大象座，三昧耶标志为金刚杵）。尤其在藏传佛教密教中，作为曼荼罗东方的金刚部族的主尊，通过化身观念而形成了数量庞大的护法神群，对藏传佛教后期的神佛系统产生重要影响。因而，对阿閦佛及其部族进行系统、深入研究是藏传佛教密教研究中的重要部分。

　　本文主要采用考古学以及图像志(iconography)和图像学(iconology)的研究方法，结合历史、宗教背景，尝试建立阿閦佛及相关密教五佛的图像志，探讨阿閦佛从初期大乘诸神之一到密教五方佛之一的演变，以及其在藏传佛教中的发展，图像资料上下限为7-15世纪前后。

　　全文共七章，主体研究包括三部分内容。第一部分着重建立7-15世纪之间的阿閦佛图像志，并进行分期和初步的类型学研究，共分为7-9世纪、10-13世纪上半叶、13世纪下半叶-15世纪前后三期，并对各期出现的图像进行了分区以及题材、形式的类型学分析。第二部分为对五佛曼荼罗的图像研究，重点关注以阿閦佛为主尊的五佛曼荼罗图像，并探讨了五方佛及其图像的演变。第三部分考察了阿閦佛国净土图像。

　　第一章“绪论”，包括藏传佛教图像基础资料简介，回顾佛教图像尤其密教图像研究状况和研究方法，并针对本文的研究确立了兼采考古学、图像志(iconography)和图像学(iconology)，并结合历史、宗教背景的研究方法。

　　第二章“吐蕃时期/前弘期阿閦佛图像的探讨（7-9世纪）”。吐蕃时期密教五佛在西藏的传播状况隐晦不明。本文对文献记载中可能为密教阿閦佛的大昭寺、昌珠寺塑像进行了探讨，认为很可能是8-9世纪间由尼泊尔传入吐蕃。其次对吐蕃统治敦煌时期（781-848）的两类阿閦佛（或东方不动佛）壁画进行分析，认为其中A类 窟顶四披四方佛中的东方佛，应属于《金光明经》、《佛说观佛三昧海经》体系的“四方佛”；B类 维摩诘经变《见阿閦佛品》，属于大乘显教的内容，宣扬的是佛国净土思想。因此，吐蕃统治时期的敦煌仍然以大乘显教以及带有密教色彩的经典和信仰为主，与吐蕃本土的密教发展并不同步。西藏西部，即拉达克“协”（Shey）的五佛摩崖石刻，是吐蕃时期目前唯一明确的五佛图像。

　　第三章“后弘期的阿閦佛图像（10-13世纪上半叶）”。对这一时期西藏西部、西藏中部、属于藏东文化区的西夏相关图像进行分区分析，这一时期西藏佛教图像志中最重要特征，就是以大日如来为中心、反映金刚界五方佛体系的曼荼罗，阿閦佛作为东方佛出现在以泥塑或壁画形式表现的曼荼罗中，是密教兴起的具体体现；但几个地区的具体状况有所不同。同时，藏西早期壁画中仍然体现出早期的佛教大乘信仰。并结合单体图像对佛像身形特征进行了类型分析。

　　第四章“13世纪下半叶-15世纪的阿閦佛图像”。13世纪以来是西藏密教发展兴盛的时期，在阿閦佛及五佛图像的题材、佛像造型（身形）上都有体现。尽管这一时期的密法并不限于以大日如来为中心的瑜伽部，但此时期内阿閦佛出现的题材基本都是作为五方佛之一，多数时候仍居曼荼罗的东方。但已经有新的变化，有时阿閦佛与大日如来互换方位，出现在曼荼罗的中心，体现出13世纪以后西藏密教无上瑜伽部的兴起。13到15世纪西藏与内地交流的加强，促进了卫藏艺术风格的明确，并向西传播对西藏西部作品产生影响。

　　第五章“阿閦佛曼荼罗”。对12世纪晚期，13、14世纪时新出现的以阿閦佛为主尊的金刚界曼荼罗进行考察，认为其具体图像类型除了传统认为的以阿閦佛化身诸怒相神为中尊的曼荼罗之外，的确也存在以阿閦佛居于五佛中尊的曼荼罗图像类型，主要见于西藏西部的过街塔建筑中。这一新题材体现出密教无上瑜伽密支系在西藏的发展。此章第二节将金刚界五佛作为一个整体进行考察，尝试探讨五方佛及其图像演变的规律。

　　第六章“阿閦佛东方净土图像”。目前所知早期图像仅见于西藏西部拉达克阿济寺杜康（集会大殿）内的壁画（约12世纪）；以及西藏江孜白居寺吉祥多门塔二层阿閦佛殿壁画（15世纪初期）。通过对两个地点壁画的考察，对阿閦佛净土这一古老的净土的图像，尝试进行题材、图像特征及信仰背景的探讨，并分析其主要出现于藏文化区的原因。

　　第七章“结语”，对各章的研究进行总结，归纳出阿閦佛图像的时期、题材特征，以及具体造像特征的变化，衔接阿閦佛图像以及五佛图像的演变轨迹。

　　通过本文研究，对阿閦佛以及相关密教五佛的图像可以有较清晰认识。关于阿閦佛的信仰，在汉传密教以及由唐密传播出现的日本真言宗中有部分反映，除了在藏传佛教中以外，主要也在南亚一带流行。然而，在藏传佛教中，却清晰地保存了阿閦佛同时具有大乘早期净土信仰、以及大乘佛教中后来发展形成的密教思想的特性，循其脉络，可以考察出二者之间的发展线索。

　　尽管兼具显密两种特性，然而，在藏传佛教中，阿閦佛的重要地位仍然在于其作为密教金刚乘基本结构体系和根本哲学思想——即五佛五智之一。如果说大日如来的出现、发展是西藏佛教密教前弘期和后弘初期最重要的特征，那么阿閦佛及其所部属的金刚部诸神的演变就构成了西藏后弘期以后的密教发展线索，二者相衔接，就基本提供了西藏密教发展的主线。因而，就其密教属性而言，对阿閦佛图像的考察与密教五佛不可分割。

　　关键词：阿閦佛 五方佛 藏传佛教 图像 曼荼罗 阿閦佛东方净土

　　A Comprehensive Study on the Iconography of Akshobhya in the Tibetan Buddhism and Related Issues

　　(7th – 15th century)

　　Speciality: Archaeology and Museology

　　PhD Candidate:Yang Qing-fan Advisor: Prof. Wang Yao Prof. Huo Wei

　　Akshobhya (Tib. Sangs-rgyas mi-vkhrugs-pa), who is famous as the East Buddha (Jina) of the Five Dhyānī Buddhas in the Esoteric Buddhism, is also one of the earliest Buddhas of Mahayana Buddhism from the 2nd century. Along with the development of the Esoteric Buddhism, the cosmos system of the Five Dhyānī Buddhas corresponding to five directions is constructed, in which the Buddha Akshobhya is related to the east. The iconological character of Akshobhya in the Buddha pentad is composed of blue body colour, earth-touching mudra, elephant vāhana and symbol of Vajra. As the father of the Vajra family, many protector deities are attributed to Akshobhya and as his manifestation especially in the Tibetan Buddhism. Hence, a systematical study on Akshobhya and his family is important for Tibetan Buddhism.

　　To make an attempt at constructing the iconography of Akshobhya and the Five Buddhas and discussing the transition of Akshobhya from Mahayana to Vajrayana especially in Tibet, the methodology both of Archaeology, Iconography, Iconology, Religion and History are involved in this thesis. The related images are belongs to the 7th to 15th century.

　　The paper is composed of seven chapters, and the main analyses focus on three parts. The first part is to construct the iconography of Akshobhya from 7th to 15th c., and make a type analysis in several phases and regions. The second part studies the mandala of the Buddha Pentad. The third part is about images of the pure land of Akshobhya.

　　Chapter 1: Prolegomenon. This chapter reviews the foundational materials of Tibetan Buddhism Iconography and methodology.

　　Chapter 2: Discuss on the images of Akshobhya in Tubo Dynasty(7th - 9th c.). The transportation of the Five Buddhas in this period is unclear. With the discussion of related documents, Akshobhya and the Buddha Pentad is presumed to have been transported from Nepal into Tibet. Two other discussions have been made on the images from Dunhuang and Ladakh.

　　Chapter 3: The images of Akshobhya from 10th - first half of 13th c. A regional analyses is provided including Western Tibet, Central Tibet and Xixia. The most important character of the Buddhist iconography of this phase is the vajradhatu mandala with Vairocana as the center, in which Akshobhya is at the east. Mostly the representation of the mandalas are in the form of clay statues or murals. Yet the belief of Mahayana is stilled can be traced in the murals.

　　Chapter 4: The images of Akshobhya from last half of 13th c – 15th c. The themes and type of the iconography in this phase reflects the prosperity of Vajrayana. Akshobhya is often at the east of mandala which belongs to the Yoga Tantra, but sometimes also can be found in the center indicating the development of Anuttarayoga Tantra. The style of Central Tibet arts is established in this phase and spread to the western Tibet.

　　Chapter 5: The Vajradhatu mandala with Akshobhya as the center. Besides the type of mandala with the protector deities manifested from Akshobhya as the center, another type of this kind of mandala which with Akshobhya himself as the center is existed indeed which now are mostly discovered in the architecture called as the entrance stupa in the Western Tibet. Still, a study on the Five Buddhas and their iconographic transformation have been done.

　　Chapter 6: The images of Abhirati, Akshobhya’s pure land. Abhirati is one of the oldest pure land in Mahayana yet rarely known in form of images. The only two examples are found in Tibetan areas so far, one is the murals of Dukhang in Alchi(ca. 12th c.), and another in the Akshobhya chapel of Gyangtse dpal-kor choden. Through investigation of the wall-painting of these two sites, in which the murals of dpal-kor choden is investigated by the author, a new probe on the themes, characters of images and the background of related belief of Akshobhya’s pure land has been made.

　　Chapter 7: Epilogue. Conclusion of the thesis and thoughts about the iconological study of Tibetan Buddhism.

　　The belief of Akshobhya is mainly preserved in South Asia and Tibet, but the character of Akshobhya both from Mahayana and Vajrayana is only presented in Tibetan Buddhism nowadays. Through the investigation, the clues of the transformation between them can be constructed.

　　Key words:Akshobhya　the Five Buddhas　 the Tibetan Buddhism 　image 　mandala Abhirati